Machine Learning Basics

10 examples to get you started with Classical ML - 7 basic and 3 intermediate.

Prerequisites

uv venv && source .venv/bin/activate
uv pip install "pandas>=2.2" "scikit-learn>=1.5" "numpy>=2.0"

• Python 3.14.0 with an isolated virtual environment.
• pandas 2.2+ for tabular data; scikit-learn for classical ML algorithms and pipelines.

Basic Examples

1. Load Data into a DataFrame

Start every project by inspecting shape, dtypes, and missing values.

import pandas as pd
from sklearn.datasets import load_iris
 
iris = load_iris(as_frame=True)
df = iris.frame.assign(species=iris.target_names[iris.target])
print(df.shape, df.dtypes)
print(df.isna().sum())

• as_frame=True returns a pandas DataFrame directly from sklearn datasets.
• Check df.info() and df.describe() before modeling.
• Record the dataset version or source URL for reproducibility.

Related: Datasets & Splits - train/test/validation splits

2. Separate Features and Target

Define X (inputs) and y (label) explicitly.

X = df.drop(columns=["species"])
y = df["species"]
feature_names = list(X.columns)

• Features must exclude the target column and any post-outcome columns.
• Keep feature names as a list for later inspection and explainability.
• Categorical targets can stay as strings until an encoder is fitted.

Related: Feature Engineering - encoding and scaling

3. Train/Test Split

Hold out unseen data before fitting anything.

from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
 
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(
    X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42, stratify=y
)

• stratify=y preserves class proportions in classification tasks.
• Fit preprocessors and models on X_train only - never on the full dataset.
• The test set is touched once at the end for an unbiased score.

Related: Datasets & Splits - cross-validation

4. Fit a Baseline Classifier

Establish a simple benchmark before tuning complex models.

from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score
 
clf = LogisticRegression(max_iter=1000, random_state=42)
clf.fit(X_train, y_train)
preds = clf.predict(X_test)
print("accuracy:", accuracy_score(y_test, preds))

• Logistic regression is a strong linear baseline for tabular classification.
• Compare every new model against this baseline score.
• max_iter=1000 avoids convergence warnings on some datasets.

Related: Supervised Learning - algorithm choices

5. Scale Numeric Features

Many algorithms expect similarly scaled inputs.

from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
 
scaler = StandardScaler()
X_train_scaled = scaler.fit_transform(X_train)
X_test_scaled = scaler.transform(X_test)  # fit on train only

• fit learns mean and std from training data; transform applies them.
• Never call fit_transform on the test set - that leaks statistics.
• Wrap scaling in a Pipeline to prevent manual mistakes.

Related: Feature Engineering - ColumnTransformer

6. Build a Leak-Free Pipeline

Chain preprocessing and model into one estimable object.

from sklearn.pipeline import Pipeline
 
pipe = Pipeline([
    ("scaler", StandardScaler()),
    ("clf", LogisticRegression(max_iter=1000, random_state=42)),
])
pipe.fit(X_train, y_train)
print("pipeline accuracy:", accuracy_score(y_test, pipe.predict(X_test)))

• A Pipeline ensures test data never influences preprocessing statistics.
• pipe.predict(X_test) runs scaling then classification in one call.
• Serialize the whole pipeline for deployment, not just the model.

Related: Pipelines - composing steps

7. Cross-Validate for Stable Scores

Single train/test splits can be noisy; CV averages multiple folds.

from sklearn.model_selection import cross_val_score
 
scores = cross_val_score(pipe, X_train, y_train, cv=5, scoring="accuracy")
print(f"CV mean: {scores.mean():.3f} +/- {scores.std():.3f}")

• Cross-validation runs on training data only - the test set stays locked.
• Report mean and standard deviation, not just the best fold.
• Use scoring appropriate to the problem (F1, ROC-AUC, etc.).

Related: Model Evaluation - metrics and curves

Intermediate Examples

8. Encode Categorical Features

Mixed numeric and categorical columns need targeted transforms.

from sklearn.compose import ColumnTransformer
from sklearn.preprocessing import OneHotEncoder
 
num_cols = ["sepal length (cm)", "sepal width (cm)"]
cat_cols = ["petal length (cm)"]  # example: treat one column as categorical
 
preprocessor = ColumnTransformer([
    ("num", StandardScaler(), num_cols),
    ("cat", OneHotEncoder(handle_unknown="ignore"), cat_cols),
])

• ColumnTransformer applies different transforms to different column groups.
• handle_unknown="ignore" prevents crashes on unseen categories at inference.
• Fit the preprocessor inside a pipeline, never on the full dataset upfront.

Related: Feature Engineering - full encoding patterns

9. Tune Hyperparameters with Grid Search

Search parameter combinations inside cross-validation.

from sklearn.model_selection import GridSearchCV
 
param_grid = {"clf__C": [0.1, 1.0, 10.0]}
search = GridSearchCV(pipe, param_grid, cv=5, scoring="accuracy")
search.fit(X_train, y_train)
print("best params:", search.best_params_)
print("test accuracy:", accuracy_score(y_test, search.predict(X_test)))

• Prefix pipeline step params with the step name (clf__C).
• GridSearchCV picks the best params by CV score on training data.
• Evaluate the winner once on the held-out test set.

Related: Hyperparameter Tuning - Optuna and random search

10. Save and Load a Trained Pipeline

Persist the full artifact for reproducible inference.

import joblib
 
joblib.dump(pipe, "iris_pipeline.joblib")
loaded = joblib.load("iris_pipeline.joblib")
print(loaded.predict(X_test[:3]))

• Save the entire pipeline so preprocessing travels with the model.
• Version the artifact alongside training data hash and random seed.
• Load and predict with the same pandas column names used during training.

Related: Pipelines - serialization and deployment

Stack versions: This page was written for Python 3.14.0 (stable 3.14, maintenance 3.13), FastAPI 0.115+, Django 5.2, Flask 3.1, Pydantic 2, PyTorch 2.6+, pandas 2.2+, Polars 1.x, ruff 0.9+, and uv 0.6+.

pbqrthvqrf.vb|ptvb638|202607